Embodying cosmopolitanism

Throughout his journeys, Biswas gained proficiency in several languages and developed a deep understanding of diverse cultures, which also led him to become an accomplished orator. These skills allowed him to traverse across continents with a comparative ease, to welcome different forms of learning and grow his skills as an animal tamer.

Through these multicultural encounters, his persona can be situated within the “cosmopolitan subject” (Meerzon 4) which reveals a distinctive subjectivity that surpasses both local and national identities as well as the limitations of international and global definitions (13). The drive to explore was integral to his cosmopolitan persona, which consistently fuelled his journeys. He refers to this in a letter to his uncle a decade later:

Dear uncle, I will soon go away from here and invent something that will enable me to travel, because, by travelling only I am happy, for, this gives the idea and nourishes it, of reaching home some day. I must keep moving, for motion is the law, as well as the sign of life, and besides, my objects and motives for being in Brazil in the military line are fulfilled. [Rio de Janeiro, 5 January 1889] (Dutt 190)

Biswas’s journeys and performances within diverse communities demonstrate a vibrant transformation of his artistic expression and career, decolonizing the performing body through the cosmopolitanism that shaped his identity, thereby resisting a singular interpretation of who he is. By situating himself in a hybrid space, he was able to move beyond the dichotomy of colonizer and colonized. In my analysis, this cosmopolitan subject even transcends the limitations of a “nationalist icon”.

The modern circus, inherently linked to coloniality, often perpetuates the objectification, taming and exoticization of the “other”, thereby reinforcing these power dynamics. Gillian Arrighi, identifying multiple factors that led to these movements, regards the circus as a transcultural entity, recognizing circuses as centers of cosmopolitanism. This challenges the notion that the circus repertoire was solely shaped by performances from Europe and North America. The East played an equal role in establishing the foundations of circus arts (Arrighi). The presence of artists from the colonies, while challenging the hierarchical power dynamics and de-colonizing both the body in performance and the contexts in which it was performed, also increased the popularity of the circus.

Absent Figures in the Circus Annals

Migration was a constant feature of the colonial era, producing what were often treated as “surplus” African and Asian populations on the streets of London (Banerjee). Indian servants, sailors and nannies found themselves homeless in England after their contracts had ended or their usefulness to employers had diminished. Sumanta Banerjee characterizes these individuals as “the surplus products who were born out of the British capitalists’ perpetual search for surplus (profit)” (59). The capitalist-driven society of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries facilitated the emergence of streets and theaters as new venues for entertainment, where Indian immigrants often secured their livelihoods as street performers and jugglers.

Biswas represents just one among numerous Indian artists who travelled on the colonial entertainment circuit. The archives of photographs and illustrations from the early nineteenth century also reference Ramo Sammee in England (“Theatrical Reflection”), Medua and Mooty Sammee in Germany (Zubrzycki, Jadoowallahs, Jugglers …) and Cassim Mohammet and Abdallah Mohammet traveling through Australia (“The Celebrated Indian Jugglers”). These performers not only captivated large audiences but also significantly shaped the popular entertainment landscape of their time, with their acts being adopted by local performers and eventually being integrated into the circus repertoire.¹⁰ Local individuals began to don the attire of “fakirs” and “jugglers”, emulating their indigenous acts and performances. It is important to acknowledge that the contributions of these artists to the evolution of modern circus are frequently overlooked, relegating them to the status of obscured figures in the history of circus and historical accounts in general.

The pivotal aspect that shaped Biswas’s journey was his connection with Bosco and Carlo’s insistence on retaining him as Bosco’s caretaker, which led him away from Europe and allowed him to discover his audiences and community in South America, where he flourished. Not every individual succeeded in establishing a successful trajectory akin to that of Suresh Biswas; many passed away in obscurity. Ramo Samee experienced an early death in relative obscurity on the streets of London, whereas Cassim and Abdallah Mohammet were arrested and accused of murder in Australia.¹¹ The evolving performance identity and their ability to adapt to cultural influences, which enhanced their appeal as entertainers, also made many of them susceptible to racial prejudices.

Migrant Artists in the Global Labour Market

The current trend of surplus labour migration from the Global South to the North has its roots in the colonial era. Circus artists have become a distinct demographic within the larger context of labour migration, navigating the complex networks that connect South Asia and Africa, where individuals are propelled by the dual motivations of aspiration and survival. My research findings and interviews with artists over recent years indicate that their migration not only reflects their personal aspirations but also emphasizes the socio-economic conditions that influence their decisions.

This situation arises from two key factors: first, the enhanced accessibility afforded by the internet, which has allowed circuses to recruit artists directly, or through agents, from more remote areas, thus ensuring continuous novelty and diversity in the Indian circuses; and second, to address the lack of Indian artists. In India, there are no specialized circus training schools; instead, the circuses themselves function as training venues for young recruits. However, the Supreme Court’s ban on child artists in circuses has led to an economic and artistic crisis, resulting in no young recruits receiving practical training. This situation has prompted a desperate attempt by circuses to survive by featuring an increasing number of acts by international performers, while Indian artists maintain only a minimal presence.

Consequently, migrants from diverse racial backgrounds, ethnicities and skillsets continue to join the Indian circuses—artists from Russia, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Vietnam, Mongolia and other Eastern European and Central Asian nations now perform in Indian circuses, with African¹² artists being particularly prominent. European, Russian or other Central Asian artists are usually contracted exclusively by more affluent circuses like Gemini, Apollo, Asiad and Rambo Circus, on short-term contracts.

This scenario is markedly different from that of African performers, who are typically contracted on an annual basis and are often sought after by numerous circuses.¹³ These performers predominantly come from Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia to showcase their skills.¹⁴ They typically perform as a unit, with a significant number of male artists, and are a familiar presence in numerous circuses across India. I have observed many such troupes at circuses in Delhi, Chandigarh and Kerala between 2015 and 2023.

In the contemporary context defined by governmental mechanisms and neoliberal strategies that facilitate labour mobility for developmental projects, the mobility of artists is more complicated. This complexity arises from stringent visa regulations, while securing permanent residency or citizenship in the Global South has become increasingly challenging. With the rise of liberal capitalism, Wendy Brown argues that:

both individual and state become projects of management, rather than rule, as an economic framing and economic ends replace political ones, a range of concerns become subsumed to the project of capital enhancement, recede altogether, or are radically transformed as they are “economized” (22).

Nonetheless, within the circus milieu, they contribute to a rich tapestry of acts, bringing their unique skills and performances to diverse audiences in India. This cross-cultural interaction raises important questions about identity, belonging and the impact of globalization on circus practice and repertoire. Typically, their performances feature acrobatic routines which intersperse with conventional circus repertoire where the acts are structured and performed as separate “items”¹⁶.

Artistry and Skills - Embodied Cosmopolitanism

A group of five acrobats from Africa enters the ring without any props, dancing in complete sync to music which sounds “African”, all dressed in two-piece costumes with animal prints. Two of them take their position on the ground as the others keep dancing. The next two walk towards the centre and are lifted by the ones already positioned there, onto their shoulders. As these two steady their balance, the fifth dancer joins them and is lifted by all four. The position not only has a clear geometry but works because of the distribution of weight, with clean aesthetics achievable in only a few seconds. They stay in this pose for a few seconds as the audience takes in the strength of their bodies and the balance of the complicated tableau, simultaneously applauding their courage. Then they let go and disperse, only to dance around for a while and come back to strike another tableau. There are specific steps to disassemble the poses as well. As a break between two poses, they all stand in a line and one will perform some solo movements in front of the line while the others often clap to the rhythm, compelling the audience to join them. The performance moves ahead with the poses becoming more complex at each stage. The performers consistently returned to the ring, incorporating various props such as ropes, hoops and poles across different acts. Each act lasts three to four minutes, accompanied by distinct soundtracks and diverse costumes. (Seen at Asiad Circus, Delhi, October 2017)

African artists generally showcase four to five acts in every performance, and their swift tempo along with their physical abilities clearly sets them apart from others. They outshine their Indian counterparts in terms of skill and physicality, taking center stage with their innovative and distinctive performances, making them visibly the star performers of the show. Their compensation reflects this disparity, as explained by Sujit Dilip of Rambo Circus who reports a monthly salary of 1,35,000¹⁷ rupees for each Ethiopian artist contracted for six months, which is a substantial income according to upper middle-class standards in India. What underlies the training and skills that positions them as the main draw at Indian circuses and elevates them above their Indian counterparts? Who orchestrates these performances characterized by a distinct choreography, and what cultural, ethnic or nationalist elements are present?

Figure 2

Acrobats: Jumam Hamid, Fred Genga, Arnold Julian Seprano, Bernard Julian Kasembo, and Rada Karisamaita from Kenya performing at the Great Apollo Circus, Manimajra, Chandigarh, India. 2016. Photographed by the author.

Leah Niederstadt explains that the evolution of acrobatics in these countries is a complex interplay of indigenous traditions and Chinese techniques. In her analysis of Ethiopia’s circus scene, she elaborates that artistic directors draw upon local folktales, music, dance and traditional attire to create a performance that is distinctly Ethiopian. The rigorous training, influenced by Chinese methodologies and rooted in historical Cold War exchanges¹⁸, merges with local artforms. Integration of their physical skills with indigenous cultural expressions creates a unique synthesis that transcends mere imitation of the source forms, yielding a distinctive style that represents an “African” identity. The utilization of traditional music and attire in performances serves to articulate a national identity that encompasses a variety of ethnic groups. Niederstadt observes that in Ethiopia, circuses incorporate costumes, dance, music, song and props to celebrate and emphasize ethnic identity for local audiences, although these subtleties are frequently overlooked by international viewers. This approach mirrors the practices of the Moscow and Chinese State Circuses, which similarly leverage national identity as both a marketing strategy and a means of ensuring thematic unity in their shows¹⁹ (Niederstadt 77).

The Community and the Decolonized Performative Body

In this discussion, I will examine two contextualizations of these performances. The first involves the aesthetics associated with their cultural practices and the philosophical context that informs the “African” worldview. The second relates to their performance in the intercultural sphere and the circus as a site of popular culture, where the performance engenders a decolonized “African” corporeality.

The African acrobats infuse their performances with an unparalleled joy and exuberance, eliciting an engaged response intertwined with the thrill of their performance, which is very different from the visceral reaction and feelings of awe evoked by a white aerialist, whose aesthetics are dominated by individual expertise and transgression. Catching, balancing and creating formations convey dependence and trust on other members whereas individual skill is subsumed. In this ensemble, there is no one individual star; rather, each member shines collectively, showcasing equal proficiency in their craft. The hallmark of their performance lies in their discipline and seamless collaboration, where all the members collectively ensure that the individual does not fall, which distinctly sets them apart from other performers. How have these indigenous vocabularies integrated into a broader universal circus aesthetic?

This prompts an in-depth investigation into the philosophy that underlies aesthetics which is deeply embedded with the notion of “community”. Achille Mbembe’s analysis of decolonization in the African context highlights a “will to community,” coupled with a “will to know” and a desire for uniqueness and originality, all of which I interpret as fundamental to their artistic expressions (2). African circus performances are not fuelled by competition, authorship or the virtuosic body of one individual over the rest—but rather by a profound longing for community. As pointed out by Olga Lucía Sorzano in a personal conversation, this perspective can be attributed to the widely embraced Ubuntu philosophy which is a deeply ingrained worldview that prioritizes community and the interconnectedness of humanity. This ethical framework posits that identities are shaped by relationships with others, suggesting that our existence as human beings is defined not by solitary experiences but by interactions. Ubuntu encourages a contemplation of existence as a collective entity and a consideration of the extent to which individual humanity and personhood are influenced by connections with others. This philosophical approach redirects attention from the individual to the collective, a fundamental concept that is particularly evident in, and profoundly resonates with, the manner in which African circus bodies establish, maintain and perform contact with other bodies. The energy of the performance is determined by the connection between bodies acting as a collective.

Additionally, the concept of this performed community embraces the audience, thereby enriching each individual’s engagement with the spectacle. Meerzon, in her reference to McAulley, asserts the creation of a collective sense of occasion which fosters social energy through the interaction between stage and audience (249), which can cultivate a vibrant and participatory spectatorship (243).

In my reading, the circus continually reinterprets the significance of the body which is perpetually in negotiation with diverse positionalities rather than a fixed set of oppositions. Stuart Hall posits that the cultural expressions from diasporic encounters result from a partial synchronization and engagement across various cultural boundaries, merging multiple traditions and negotiating power dynamics. He notes that this process involves intricate strategies of recoding and transcoding, as well as critical signification (Hall 28) which I use as my basis to read in the African re-coding of Chinese acrobatics and specialization of a physical technique, transcoding it with their own indigenous practices and thought. Hall discusses the ways in which Black individuals utilize their bodies as a form of cultural expression, suggesting that their physicality often serves as the sole cultural capital available to them. He emphasizes that these bodies become “canvases of representation” (Hall 27), particularly within the context of cultures that arise from diasporic experiences. Hall sees these as “hybrid spaces of popular culture,” which are characterized by their lack of authenticity and singularity, and instead reflect the complexities of diasporic aesthetics. This raises the question of whether circus can ever embody a singular national identity. Circus artists from Africa are required to portray a specific aesthetic and play a particular identity in these milieus, even though while displaying specific ethnicities, these bodies fundamentally possess a more complex and nuanced universal quality.

The significant decline in audience numbers in Indian circuses over the past decade has prompted numerous African artists to seek opportunities in more prosperous regions, such as the Gulf states and European nations. A Kenyan group, associated with the Great Apollo Circus, toured Dubai along with Mumbai and Goa. Lidiya Dawed from Ethiopia, who performed with the Rambo Circus, previously graced stages in Israel, Kenya and Kuwait (Jain). To the nascent artists in their early twenties, Indian cities serve as an ideal ground for exposure, to try out their skills and acts and to gain proficiency before they traverse more competitive and tough festival markets of the Global North. As these artists enhance their skills, they will increasingly gain access to newer geographies and performance circuits. The circus network, particularly that of India, facilitates their reach and integration into international circuits; however, the repertoire they present here is significantly different from the performances they deliver in Europe.

Hybrid circus artist in the neoliberal performance market

The training includes a wide variety of forms: indigenous performances as well as instruction in fundamental circus skills such as juggling, contortion and acrobatics. The artists at Mighty Jambo Academy also receive training in yoga. Washika indicated that aerial acts were introduced to them through collaborations with European artists. Furthermore, there are continuous exchange programs with European partners where African artists also share their own expertise in acrobatics.

Figure 3

Acrobats at the Mighty Jambo Academy, Nairobi, Kenya. 2021. Photographed by the author.

In my observations of a studio practice session in October 2021, performances by artists at the Mighty Jambo Academy tend to exoticize ancient African identities, particularly for their European tours, which emphasize physical acts and hunting-centred narratives. In these acts, the lead contortionist, adorned in a body-fitting animal costume, often portrays a leopard or a serpent while other performers, dressed as hunters, engage in rhythmic dance. This is frequently preceded or succeeded by acrobatic sequences reminiscent of acts performed in India, yet the costumes and choreography serve to further exoticize and objectify the performers’ bodies, catering to a voyeuristic audience. Here, the effectiveness of indigeneity—the defining core of the form, embodied through centuries-old living repertoires—exists but is not immediately apparent; in my reading, it remains suspended.

Conversely, in Europe, from the rehearsal sessions witnessed in Nairobi and performance videos that I have seen online, I found that the portrayal of these troupes is further exoticized, often depicting them as huntsmen which reinforces stereotypes and simplifies their complex identities. This representation not only highlights the differences in perception between regions but also underscores the challenges faced by these communities in maintaining their authenticity amidst external interpretations.

A notable feature of popular culture, particularly in forms such as the circus, is its adaptability, allowing various groups or communities to reinterpret and perform it in their own contexts. Conversely, the circus practice, characterized by its fluidity, inherently accommodates indigenous performances. Nevertheless, the rich potential of the embodied practices is frequently overshadowed by the circus aesthetic which is largely dictated by market forces and the capitalist-driven festival circuit that often exoticizes and sexualizes the body. Circus, however, retains an inherent potential of being didactic, although this element is lost on international audiences on global tours (Barber 7).

The categorization of cultural forms and content is fluid, as Hall suggests, and cannot be rigidly associated with any singular group. Instead, there exists a continuous exchange between “preferred” and “marginalized” cultural expressions, shaped by evolving power dynamics and mutual influences. This interplay renders the concept of “popular” culture a contested space. In my analysis, artists from Africa and their performances across the Global North and South highlight their adaptability with changing geopolitical realms, influenced by diverse socio-economic and political factors. However, the significance of self-representation and imagination in comprehending their identities, and the ways in which they are shaped by cultural contexts, would dominate. In the realm of contemporary circus, it serves as an avenue for cultural self-definition, political critique and social resistance.

These can be seen being manifested through performances in two distinct forms: the first embodies and celebrates a pan-African identity, integrating diverse ethnic and national representations from various African nations. An example of this is the extensively touring show Mama Africa: Circus for the Senses, directed by Winston Ruddle, which features performers from nine different African countries collectively presenting a unified pan-African identity. The second are more contemporary, socially relevant performances—Tulu (2022), a production by Circus Abyssinia, is a homage to the ground-breaking achievement of Ethiopian athlete Derartu Tulu, who secured an Olympic gold medal in 1992. This performance constituted an uninterrupted marathon of aerial displays, encapsulating the thrill of the Olympic Games. With a vibrant mix of juggling flags and flames set to the rhythms of 1970s funk and contemporary Ethio-pop, the performance highlighted the remarkable physical prowess and artistic expression inherent in Ethiopian circus culture, reflecting the pride and inspiration derived from Tulu’s historic victory. Rather than focusing on a specific ethnic or African identity, the narrative conveys a powerful tale of resilience and determination drawn from recent history, which also taps on the emotions of the audience and is socially relevant for them.²⁰

The performers have tailored their movements to create a unique expression that transcends conventional forms or idioms. In my reading, their performance is characterized by skill, expertise and fluidity, rather than the ethnic background of the act itself. Karin Barber positions popular culture practices as a marginalized category, often overlooked by traditional cultural frameworks and elite modern forms governed by cultural institutions. She argues that these practices have developed more organically, emerging as new forms that are “predominantly urban, syncretic, quickly changing, oriented towards modernity, often pursuing novelty and commercial, and produced by young, self-taught entrepreneurs working alone or in small groups” (Barber 7). These forms evolve by blending tradition with modernity, continuously generating new trends. The performances within this medium not only exhibit agency but also reflect the complexities of subjectivity related to race, gender, nation and class. These performances create contact zones that extend democratic ideas beyond traditional production boundaries, allowing for a dynamic interaction between the public sphere and the performing bodies involved (Meerzon).