As a literature review, the study did not utilize a strict “systematic review” approach since a large body of literature on Islamic Psychology is housed outside the mainstream Western academic databases. Rather, the study adopted a flexible search strategy, and a wide net was cast through various academic databases, as well as other forms of databases and book repositories. This search also included screening reference lists in major Islamic Psychology works, bibliographies on Islamic Psychology, and Islamic Psychology content on social media platforms. National and regional databases utilized in this study include the following:

Arabic: Mandumah, Almanhal, eMarefa

The study included works in three languages: Arabic, English, and Turkish. The main inclusion criteria were explicit indication of a psychological theme and explicit engagement with classical Islamic psychological literature as the focus of the work. Most works on Islamic Psychology engage with classical literature; however, our study only included works centered around that theme. No date limitations were set, and, for purposes of the analysis, works published post-Ottoman era were considered contemporary and those published during or pre-Ottoman era were considered classical. The study included edited volumes, monographs, peer-reviewed journal papers, graduate theses and dissertations, conference proceedings, and some papers in periodicals of reasonable quality.

Among the most encyclopedic overviews is the four-volume publication commissioned by the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) (Abd Al-Hamid et al., 2008; Majariyya et al., 2011). The project explored, surveyed, and summarized hundreds of classical treatises written by more than 100 Muslim scholars spanning the first Hijrī century through the 14th Hijrī century (8th century–20th century C.E.). This project was a collaborative effort supervised by Egyptian scholars Muhammad ‘Uthman Nagati, Abd Al-Halim Mahmoud, Tarif Shawqi Faraj, and Abdel-Moneim Shehata Mahmoud. All contributors (over 20) were professors of psychology from Egyptian Universities (Abd Al-Hamid et al., 2008; Majariyya et al., 2011; Elzamzamy et al., 2021). The first three volumes, spanning 1,500 pages, were published in 2008 and entitled ‘Ilm al-Nafs fi al-Turath al-Islami (Psychological Sciences in the Islamic Heritage). The three volumes were organized chronologically, starting with Ibn Sirin (d. 729 C.E.) and ending with Abu Al-’Ula Afifi (d. 1966 C.E.). Eleven professors of psychology from various Egyptian universities annotated the treatises.

The project aimed to serve as a guide for researchers in the field of Islamic Psychology. It originally intended to include published and unpublished classical treatises; however, due to the lack of resources, it was restricted to those published in print. A fourth volume was later published in 2011 under the same series by another group of Egyptian professors supervised by Abd Al-Halim Mahmoud, Tarif Shawqi Faraj, and Abdel-Moneim Shehata Mahmoud (Majariyya et al., 2011). While the first three volumes were organized by scholar, this fourth volume was organized by scholarly discipline: adab (manners), ‘usūl al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence), tarājim (biographies), taṣawwuf (Sufism), and others. Each entry in these four volumes includes a brief biography of the scholar followed by a review, summary, and annotation of the work. Each entry included some references to contemporary psychological constructs believed to be relevant to the work at hand.

Several contemporary works organized their survey by scholar, with various degrees of depth in analyzing the scholar’s contribution to psychological constructs and concepts (Nagati, 1993; Ismail, 2001; Awaad, 2020; Haque, 2004; Majeed & Jabir, 2017; Al-Taramsi, 1978; Rassool & Luqman, 2023; Maden, 2022; Köse, 2013). Of the most comprehensive works is Nagati’s (1993) (#02) 300-page monograph entitled Al-Dirasat al-Nafsaniyya ‘ind al-’Ulama’ al-Muslimin (Psychological Studies of Muslim Scholars), which originally started as classes taught to undergraduate students at the Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh during the years 1984–1987.

The monograph explored the writings of 14 scholars (see Table 2). The themes explored under each scholar included: the theory knowledge, the ontology of the nafs, mental faculties, human states and traits, sleep and dreams, emotions and emotional regulation, happiness, behavior and behavior modification, treating psychological ailments, and parenting and childhood development. Nagati drew comparisons and associations between the thought of these classical scholars and modern theories and applications. Likewise, Rassool and Luqman (2023) offered a rigorous overview of the contributions of 14 classical scholars, in addition to 12 contemporary scholars (see Table 2). After a brief biography of each scholar and a list of their psychological treatises, the book surveyed their thoughts on psychology, psychopathology, and therapeutic interventions. Other works under this subtype largely followed similar patterns (see Table 2 for a list of the scholars surveyed in each of these works). Others, namely Awaad et al. (2020), as highlighted in the introduction, attempted to classify and conceptualize contributions from a disciplinary perspective: philosophers, physicians, and theologians. It is worth noting that most of the aforementioned overviews offered critical remarks on the emerging field of Islamic Psychology and on the significance and approaches to examining the classical psychological literature.

Distinctly, Köse’s (2013) study shifts the focus to later Ottoman Muslim intellectuals. In his master’s dissertation, Köse examined the contributions and works of five Ottoman intellectuals, namely Ali İrfan (d. 1286/1869), Hoca Tahsin (b. 1227/1812), Yusuf Kemal Bey (d. 1265/1849), Ahmed Nebil (d. 1364/1945), and Baha Tevfik (b. 1301/1884); analyzing four works by these scholars produced between 1878 and 1912. The study compares and contrasts the ideas and approaches of these Ottoman intellectuals with those of contemporary psychologists, providing a more nuanced understanding of the field.

Two interconnected works (Al-Khalifa, 2001; Taha, 2011) organized their survey by topics or subfields of psychology. Al-Khalifa (2001), in his introduction, commended his teacher’s (Taha’s) work for its encyclopedic nature and its comparative, analytical, and rooted discourse. Al-Khalifa considered his own work ‘Ilm al-Nafs al-Tajribi fi al-Turath al- ‘Arabi al-Islami (Experimental Psychology in the Arabic Islamic Heritage) a continuation of the legacy of Taha in his compendium ‘Ilm al-Nafs fi al-Turath al-‘Arabi al-Islami (Psychology in the Arabic Islamic Heritage) (Taha, 2011, first published in 1995). Professor Malik Badri prefaced Taha’s book with strong praise for filling a void in contemporary Islamic psychological literature, as well as for its mastery in dissecting both contemporary and classical discourses. As evident from the title of his work, Al-Khalifa paid special attention to subfields with empirical sensory epistemological foundations (see Table 3 for the main topics and themes covered in the two texts). Both texts included chapters discussing methodological foundations for accessing and utilizing the classical psychological heritage.

Numerous works ventured to map the views and ideas of a given scholar. Such works were given titles such as Psychological Studies, Psychological Contributions, Psychological Thoughts, Psychological Themes, and Psychological Opinions by X scholar. Some were purely descriptive while others adopted analytical and comparative approaches.

The scholars surveyed in these works spanned the 9th century to the 15th century C.E., starting with al-Kindi (d. 870), Ibn Miskawayh (d. 1030), Ibn Sina (d. 1037), Al-Mawardi (d. 1058), Ibn Hazm (d. 1064), al-Ghazali (d. 1111), and Ibn Tufayl (d. 1185). Two extensive works addressed al-Kindi. Fitzmaurice (1971), in a master’s thesis, explored al-Kindi’s extant treatises on psychological themes and highlighted al- Kindi’s agreement with and departure from Greek sources and influences. Aldemir (2019) offered an extensive and elaborate thematic exploration of the various concepts pertaining to psychology, psychology of religion, mental well-being, emotional well-being, and virtue ethics in the works of al-Kindi.

Al-Tayyib (1982) examined Ibn Miskawayh’s views on ontology, psychological faculties, individual differences, childhood development, and psycho-spiritual ailments and treatments. ‘Uthman (1981) surveyed some of Ibn Sina’s psychological opinions on the nature of the nafs, perceptual and imaginative faculties, memory, emotions, thinking, willpower, dreams, and temperament. Al-Mawardi’s views on behaviors, cognition, drives, motivation, learning, and character refinement were briefly examined by al-Tayyib (1993). Mihdad (2008) presented Ibn Hazm’s significance for the emerging field of Islamic Psychology and his views on psycho-spiritual well-being, primarily as they appeared in his book Mudawat al-Nufus. Al-Khawalda (2012) contrasted Ibn Tufayl’s psychological views in relation to child development and cognitive development, as demonstrated in his treatise Hayy ibn Yaqzan, with views of contemporary scholars such as Jung and Piaget.

Al-Ghazali was the focus of numerous publications. Al-Ahwani (1963) presented al-Ghazali as the founder of Islamic Psychology and showcased his multi-level approach and methodology for understanding the psyche and treating its ailments. Al-Husaini (1950) published a series of opinion articles entitled al-Ghazali wa-‘Ilm al-Nafs, where he explored al-Ghazali’s views on various psychological concepts such as cognition, drives, behaviors, the unconscious, Divine inspiration, and psychological ailments. Kharrat (2007) focused his analysis on al-Ghazali’s sources of psychological knowledge and his methodologies of behavioral observations. Al-Hajj (1993) offered an overview of al-Ghazali’s views on childhood psychology, child-rearing, and learning theories, including conditioning. Finally, al-‘Uthman (1981), in his master’s thesis, conducted an extensive review of over 400 pages on al-Ghazali’s contributions, focusing on a myriad of themes both from ontological and practical perspectives. The thesis portrayed al-Ghazali’s unique grasp of both the Islamic and pre-Islamic perspectives in addition to his objective methodology for studying the human psyche. It also highlighted his pioneering views in understanding human behavior and its modification.

Later scholars whose psychological contributions were surveyed include ibn ‘Ata’ Allah al-Iskandari (d. 1309) and Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406). Misilhi (2014) examined Ibn ‘Ata’ Allah al- Iskandari’s thought on the anatomical (ontological) structure of the human psyche, the concept of psychic conflicts in contemporary psychology in relation to al-Iskandri’s views, psychological development, and various psychological ailments and their treatments. Ibn Khaldun, frequently studied under social sciences, was the focus of two contemporary works that shed light on his psychological contributions. ‘Isawi (1983) discussed various themes in Ibn Khaldun’s writings, including the role of the environment in psychological development, habit-formation, individual differences, dream interpretation, learning theory and approaches, and the use of punishment in teaching. Dhaouadi (2008) in The Forgotten Concept of Human Nature in Khaldunian Studies presented Ibn Khaldun’s thought on three different types of human nature and their influence on society and civilization: al-fitrah state (a primitive, Bedouin, natural “good” human nature), a dualistic state (where “good” and “bad” human tendencies are continuously in confrontation), and a state that is dominated by animalistic (materialistic) drives.

A few contemporary works (Awaad et al., 2019; Qasim, 2018; Qasim, 2002; Mohamad & Younis, 2018) offered an overview of classical psychological contributions in the domains of mental health and mental illnesses. Mohamad and Younis (2018) explored the development of psychiatric care in the Arab Islamic civilization in the centers of excellence of Baghdad, Cordoba, and Gondishapur. They explored the diagnostic, treatment, and preventive approaches proposed by polymaths such as Ibn ‘Umran, Al-Razi, Ibn Sina, Al- Baghdadi, Al-Balkhi, and Ibn Miskawayh. Awaad et al. (2019) underscored the significance of emotional well-being from an Islamic perspective and explored how Muslim scholars attempted to explain, conceptualize, and classify mental and psychological illnesses. The authors then surveyed the contributions of 13 Muslim polymaths and offered an overview of the various modalities of treatment utilized in Muslim hospitals, including hospital-based care, somatic therapies, and psychotherapy. Qasim (2018, 2002) offered an overview of the various modalities of treatment used by Muslim physicians, including somatic, environmental, physical, psychotherapeutic, and other interventions.

Finally, one study offered a critical evaluative overview of the entirety of the Muslim psychological heritage. Al-Zahrani (2018) analyzed and critiqued the psychological heritage under four domains: concepts; methods and approaches, subjects and fields, and learning methods. The study pointed to three main approaches and methodologies that dominated the classical heritage: philosophical, mystical, and textual. The study compared the openness of these three approaches to various epistemic sources such as empirical, sensory, metaphysical, and rational. It concluded by highlighting “suboptimal cohesion and harmony” between the philosophical and textual approaches in classical literature. It also concluded that empirical knowledge was undermined by a heavy reliance on textual knowledge and recommended utilizing realistic and variable approaches to studying the classical psychological heritage, with an emphasis on extracting lessons for the contemporary efforts towards “Islamically indigenous psychology.”

Ontological explorations of the nature and composition of the human psyche and its drives and faculties occupied a large portion of contemporary works. Some works broadly explored the ontological understanding of the nafs in classical Islamic literature (Al-Sanie, 2013, 2014; al-Tikriti, 2004; Qasim, 1962; Varli, 2019). Al-Sanie (2013) focused on four scholars: al-Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn al-Qayyim, and the contemporary scholar Muhammad Qutb. He contrasted their views with those of Freud, Jung, and Maslow. In another study, al-Sanie (2014) covered a wider range of classical scholars from various orientations and backgrounds, using a variety of excerpts on ontological themes. More briefly, al-Tikriti (2004) presented the definitions and conceptualization of al-nafs by 18 scholars, classifying them as philosophical versus mystical. The concepts of mind, soul, and spirit were examined in the works of various classical Muslim scholars in a Turkish publication by Varli (2019). Muhammad (2018) surveyed philosophical ontological perspectives on the nature of al-nafs by both Greek and contemporary philosophers, contrasting those with the views of Muslim philosophers. Finally, Qasim (1962) offered an extensive philosophical work that linked and contrasted Islamic and pre-Islamic Greek ontological conceptions of al-nafs and al- ‘aql by drawing upon the works and views of several Muslim and Greek philosophers.

Numerous works focused on the ontological views of specific scholars including Ibn Sina (Kheira, 2016; Ibn Sina & al-Ahwani, 1952; ‘Irqsusi & ‘Uthman, 2003; Sayyedbi, 2000; Al- ’Amri, 2009; Davidson, 1992; Ibrahim, 2003; Külçe, 2018), al-Ghazali (Quwidri, 2015; Fadl al-Sayyid, 2012; Fachrunisa, 2020; Sayyedbi, 2000; Al-‘Askari, 2013), al-Tawhidi (Mihnaya, 1999), Ibn Taymiyya (Al-Najjar, 2004), Ibn al-Qayyim (‘Ashawi, 2015; Al-‘Amri, 2009), Ibn Miskawayh (‘Ashawi, 2003), al-Razi (Druart, 1996), al-Farabi (Davidson, 1992), and Ibn Rushd (Davidson, 1992). These works infused, to various degrees, a comparative component with pre-Islamic and contemporary psychological constructs, but some were explicitly and extensively comparative in nature, such as the work of al-‘Askari (2013), who thoroughly examined and contrasted the theories on human nature of al-Ghazali and of the American philosopher and educational psychologist John Dewey (d. 1952). Finally, some works focused on the ontological perspectives of scholars with Sufi orientation. Mu‘ti Allah (2012) conducted an extensive study of the conceptualization of al-nafs according to the Sufi discourse, with a special emphasis on the contributions of al-Hartih al-Muhasibi and his strategies for psycho-spiritual well-being and moral uprightness. Al-Kurdi (2016) explored the Sufi ontological conceptions of al-nafs and offered an extensive discussion on psycho-spiritual ailments and their treatments according to the Sufi tradition.

Despite a dearth of standalone studies examining classical psychological epistemologies, Ali (2019) conducted an analytical critical study of al-Ghazali’s Theory of Knowledge as it pertains to research in the field of psychology. The study explored the ontology of the psyche in Ghazalian writings, al-Ghazali’s concepts of ‘ilm and its subdivisions, and his views on the sources of knowledge and knowledge acquisition.

These works examined how classical scholars conceptualized and addressed mental illnesses. Zakaria (2021) conducted a rigorous survey (spanning nearly 800 pages) of the contributions of physicians from the Abbasid period through the end of the 11th century C.E. (5th century A.H.). The study examined the socio-political-cultural factors that positively and negatively impacted the development of the field of psychiatry during that era. It shed light on prominent physicians of that era, their scholarly and applied contributions to the psychiatric field, the mental illnesses they discussed and treated, and the various treatment remedies and approaches they utilized. The study concluded with a chapter on the Islamic ethics of psychiatric mental health care.

Other works had a narrower scope, focusing either on a specific scholar, book, or modality of treatment. Two works (Quwaidar, 2013, Hammuda, 1979) evaluated Ishaq ibn ‘Imran’s (d. 294/907) Treatise on Melancholy, exploring the nature, causes, symptoms, and treatment of the illness as conceptualized by Ibn ‘Imran. Melancholia was also the focus of Taha et al. (1991), who examined Ibn Sina’s understanding of its essential features, epidemiology, nosology, and etiology. The paper also explored the various medicinal psychotropic prescriptions used by Ibn Sina to treat melancholy and drew parallels with the contemporary discourse on psychosis and its treatments. Awaad et al. (2022) provided a portrait of the mental health contributions of Abu Bakr Al-Razi that emphasized his pioneering insights on psychiatric ethics, mind-body connection, and conceptualization of mental illnesses and their treatments. Two works elucidated emotion-focused modalities of treatment based on the works of Al-Ghazali, Ibn Sina, and al-Razi. Badri (2016) explored Ibn Sina and al-Razi’s utilization of what he termed “Emotional Blasting Therapy” as an effective, emotionally induced therapy that relies on abruptly evoking intense emotions to counter various symptoms. Ibrahim et al. (2020) shed light on the theory and psycho-spiritual intervention put forward by al-Ghazali for the management of anger as an emotional disorder.

Al-Balkhi’s book, Masalih al-Abdan wa-l-Anfus (Sustenance of the Body and the Soul), received significant attention in recent years and was thoroughly reviewed and serviced by two pioneers: Dr. Mahmoud Masri, who published the book in Arabic, and Dr. Malik Badri, who published it in Arabic and translated the second section “Sustenance of the Soul” to English (Al-Balkhi & Masri, 2005; Badri, 2013; al-Balkhi et al., 2003). As the work became accessible, it allowed scholars to examine the contributions of Al-Balkhi to the conceptualization and treatment of mental illnesses. Taha (1993) and Qasim (2013) offered a general overview of Al-Balkhi’s discourse on mental health, wellness, and psychological ailments. They examined Al-Balkhi’s notions of mental health and summarized his recommended cognitive and behavioral interventions to counter sadness, anger, obsessions, and phobias. They also highlighted how Al-Balkhi’s work, in an extremely lucid and progressive style, advanced holistic notions of psycho-somatic wellness and psychological preventive interventions. Another three works attempted to contrast Al-Balkhi’s description of symptoms of various disorders with the diagnostic criteria established in the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder-5th Edition) (APA, 2013). Parallels were found in three diagnostic entities: obsessional disorders (Awaad & Ali, 2015), phobia (Awaad & Ali, 2016), and depression (Zafar et al., 2020). Zafar et al. (2020) further attempted to highlight parallels between the contemporary evidence-based understanding of depression and Al-Balkhi’s classification and treatment recommendations. Additionally, three works in Turkish appraised Al-Balkhi’s treatment strategies in relation to CBT interventions for phobia, OCD, and depression (Kılıç, 2021; Cengiz Çamlı, 2019; Gürsu, 2016).

These works focused on well-being from a psycho-spiritual perspective rather than a clinical or medical perspective (which was the focus of the previous section). Al-Ahmad (1999) and Abdillah (1990) attempted to give an overview of the notions of psycho-spiritual health according to Ibn al-Qayyim and Al-Ghazali, respectively. Others demonstrated the practical approaches proposed by classical scholars, including al-Ghazali, Ibn al-Qayyim, Ibn Taymiyya, and al-Harith al-Muhasabi, for the tahdhib (refinement), tarbiya (education), and ‘ilaj (treatment) of one’s character (nafs, akhlaq, qalb). Hamidat (2010), Al-Shinnawi (1987), and Musa’id (2012) studied al-Ghazali’s discourse on psycho-spiritual ailments and their causes, and his approach to refining one’s character and treating such ailments. These papers highlighted the parallels with contemporary evidence-based approaches such as the role of cognition, the role of nurture versus nature, theories of behavioral change, behavioral assessments, self-monitoring, individual differences, the role of motivation, and the importance of deliberate practice and reinforcement (Al-Shinnawi, 1987). Ibn al-Qayyim and Ibn Taymiyya’s contributions to this discourse were explored by Al-Mitili (1993) and Al-Rawi (2003), who highlighted the ultimate purpose of refining one’s character as developing cognizance of God, the different categories of nafs and types of spiritual diseases, the role of a learned mentor in guiding one’s psycho-spiritual journey, and thoroughly discussed various psycho-spiritual ailments and remedies to counter them. Finally, Qilati (2018) presented al-Muhasibi’s vision and interventions, which focused on self-awareness, self-accountability, countering one’s temptations, avoiding extravagance, and cognitive and imaginative exercises. Al-Muhasibi also portrayed a process of psychological analysis, and mentorship and coaching in his book Al-Ri‘aya (Observance) as part of one’s journey toward spiritual wellness (Qilati, 2018).

Under this category, a few contemporary works focused on a specific approach or model: al-Ghazali’s discourse on shame (Mobayed, 2020), counseling approaches (Hasan & Tamam, 2018), psychometric assessment of vices and virtues (Djazouli, 2021), the study of internal thought processes (‘ilm al-khawāṭir) (Quwidri, 2008), and the theory of drives and behavioral change (Abu ‘Ajah, 2014). Moreover, Fachrunisa and Chizanah (2021) attempted a forensic empirical application of al-Ghazali’s constructs of al-nafs to explain the psychological dynamics of immoral behaviors, especially in cases of corruption. BuZidani (2021) conducted an analytical comparative study contrasting Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi’s model of behavioral modification in al-Tibb al-Ruhani with that of Fred Luthans, a well-known professor who specializes in organizational behavior and behavioral change, by examining the theoretical foundations of each theory and points of convergence and divergence.

Classical scholarly views on human personality are a subject of ongoing interest and inquiry in the field of Islamic Psychology. Al-‘Ani (1998) published an extensive study (260 pages) exploring notions of personality and personality development drawing upon the works of more than 80 classical Muslim scholars and over 100 treatises. After discussing ontological foundations and definitions, the book addressed the development of personality, personality well-being and pathology, and various theories on personality in the Islamic intellectual heritage. Al-‘Ani incorporated 13 visual diagrams elucidating how scholars perceived the structure of the mind, layers of virtues, personality traits and functions, human faculties, and stages of personality development. Twenty years later, Arif (2018) published a master’s thesis on al-Ghazali’s theory on personality, focusing on early childhood development and child-rearing. He examined various components of the theory, including personality development, human nature, human motivation, psychological adjustment, the self and the unconscious, and the relationship of the individual to society.

Several Arabic publications studied what they termed taḥlīl al-nafs or al-taḥlīl al-nafsī in the works of specific Muslim scholars. Al-taḥlīl al-nafsī, literally meaning analyzing the self, is the technical Arabic term used to denote the field of psychoanalysis. Bahnam (2012), in a 200-page work entitled al-Shafi‘i Ra’idan li-l-taḥlīl al-nafsi (Al-Shafi‘i: A Psychoanalysis Pioneer), studied a non-traditional type of literature—the poetry of Imam al-Shafi‘i, who is not usually considered a key contributor to Islamic Psychology. Bahnam offered extensive reflections on al-Shafi‘i’s poetic production, elaborating on various psychological themes and constructs, including mature and immature defense mechanisms, locus of control, maladaptive behaviors, coping strategies, psychological burnout, emotional control, identity development, self-esteem, psychic conflicts, sexual disorders, body language, and mental status. The author also attempted to explore potentially repressed themes from al-Shafi‘i’s early childhood experiences with his mother. Another paper explored al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi’s school of analysis of the human psyche (Al-Wazzani, 2013). Although the title of the paper used the word taḥlīl (analysis), the author did not use the word in a technical sense but rather argued that al-Tirmidhi provided an exemplary cognitive-behavioral model of psychological understanding. Finally, Hamidat (2008) used the term taḥlīl al-nafs as he explored al-Ghazali’s analysis of various psychological constructs such as the nature of the nafs, drives, emotions, dreams, and psycho-spiritual ailments and their treatment. The author briefly and superficially contrasted al-Ghazali’s views with contemporary psychological theories, particularly psychoanalysis.

Some contemporary works presented overviews of the moral theory on virtue ethics and character refinement of specific scholars, including al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (Al-Sayih, 1988), Ibn Taymiyya (‘Afifi, 1988; Khayyat, 1987), Taşköprizade (Kamacı, 2021), and al-Jahiz (Bayır, 2021). Specifically, al-Ghazali’s approach to virtues and character refinement was examined by several contemporary scholars (Quwidri, 2011; Al-Salim, 2005; Al-Za’idi, 2019; Ahmad, 1993). In addition, a comparative study by al-Attas (Al-Attas, 1999) compared the conception of moral behaviors in al-Ghazali’s thought against contemporary psychological thought.

Numerous contemporary works linked classical works to the field of positive psychology. Havuz (2019) studied the views of Ibn Hazm on human nature in relation to positive psychology. Arvas (2017) conducted a comparative study on the concept of happiness in positive psychology and Islamic thought, while Özasma (2016) maintained a broader scope, comparing Islamic notions of virtues and character development to positive psychological constructs. Similarly, Kamacı (2021) studied character strengths in the moral thought of Taşköprizade and drew heavily upon positive psychological concepts advanced by Peterson and Seligman in their classification of virtue and character strength. Finally, al-Sa‘idi and ‘Ubayyat (2020) offered brief reflections on some supplications of al-Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq through a positive psychology lens.

Some contemporary works addressed the contributions of classical scholars to the realms of developmental and educational psychology. Taha (1990) offered a succinct overview of the principles and features of educational theories in the classical Islamic heritage. The paper demonstrated the attention awarded by Muslim scholars such as Ibn Sina and al-Ghazali to the role of various processes in learning, such as cognitive faculties and capacities, conditioning, perceptions and sensory stimuli, intuition and insight, and revelation. The paper drew parallels and highlighted divergences from contemporary learning theories. While Taha’s work was broad in scope, other works explored the educational philosophies and theories of specific scholars, including Ibn al-Jawzi (Al-‘Attar, 1998; Abd Al-‘Al, 1992), Ibn Sina, Ibn Khaldun (Roji & El Husarri, 2021), al-Ghazali (Shahzadi et al., 2021; Farha, 2021), al-Mawardi (Nasr, 2009), al-Zarnuji (Al-Mitiri, 2013; Uthman, 1981), as well as Ibn Kathir in his tafsīr (exegesis) (Salih, 2008). Abdullah et al. (2018) comparatively studied al-Ghazali in relation to Maria Montessori’s principles of child education. The paper highlighted challenges in compiling a cohesive Ghazalian child education theory yet emphasized areas of overlap and divergence between the two.

Intelligence, cognitive development, and cognitive functions were themes of interest to contemporary scholars. Five studies looked at the concept of intelligence and its various domains and determinants, four of which addressed Ibn al-Jawzi’s theory of intelligence (Al-Khatib & Jidy, 2007; Ahmad, 1987; Dahry, 2018; Shinikov, 2013) by drawing upon his discourse in Akhbar al-Adhkiya’ (Tales of the Intelligent Ones) and Akhbar al-Hamqa wa-l-Mughaffalin (Sketches of Fools and Simpletons). These highlighted his conception of intelligence and its components, in addition to the role of environmental and biological factors in fostering intelligence. Some of these works attempted to contrast theoretical and practical aspects of Ibn al-Jawzi’s views with contemporary scholars such as Binet and John Raven (Dahry, 2018, p. 83; Ahmad, 1987; Al-Khatib & Jidy, 2007). More broadly, a study by Al-Dughan (1993) examined the definition of intelligence in the classical Arabic Islamic heritage, highlighting its relationship to the concept of ‘aql. Other studies examined cognitive and brain development more broadly, both in the Islamic tradition (Mufarrih, 2015; Mufarrih, 2018) and in Ibn Khaldun’s views (Sahad & Zulkufli, 2017). Parallels to the concept of “theory of mind” were examined in the works of al-Ghazali and Ibn al-Qayyim (Arroisi & Rahmadi, 2022). Finally, Nagati (1980) conducted an extensive historical study focusing on one cognitive function, sensory perception, in the works of Ibn Sina. The study situated Ibn Sina’s views in relevance to Greek literature which predated Ibn Sina’s work, the Islamic literature of his times, and modern psychology.