There is a growing body of literature in the field of psychology that demonstrates how various aspects of religion play a central role in people’s psychological well-being (Abu-Raiya & Pargament, 2011; Amer et al., 2008; Ismail & Desmukh, 2012; Moreira-Almeida, 2006; Sateemae et al., 2015). Here, the essential elements of a “good life” as presented by contemporary psychological well-being theories are examined and their relationship to religion and religiosity are discussed.

In Islam, a “good life” extends beyond temporal satisfaction to include a broader sense of well-being (Joshanloo, 2017, p. 117). The Qur’an emphasizes that a human’s ultimate purpose is to worship Allah (Qur’an 51:56) and that a good life, both in this world and the Hereafter, comes from living according to His guidance (Qur’an 16:97). Moreover, the Holy Qur’an points out that the human psyche can only find satisfaction through the remembrance of Allah (Qur’an 13:28) and rejoice through showing gratitude to His bounties and blessings (Qur’an 10:58). Accordingly, believers find meaning and purpose by aligning their lives with the divine purpose of pleasing Allah (Keshavarzi et al., 2021, p. 20).

Research supports the significant role of religion in providing meaning and purpose. Muslim students, for example, perceive life as meaningful when they have a close relationship with God, serve God’s purpose, and live in accordance with moral virtues (Mohammad et al., 2011). Studies consistently show a positive correlation between religious involvement, purpose in life, and psychological well-being (Bamonti et al., 2016; Moreira-Almeida, 2006; Stroope, Draper, and Whitehead, 2013; Wang et al., 2016).

A fundamental distinction between contemporary conceptualizations of psychological well-being and the Islamic perspective lies in Islam’s comprehensive definition of well-being. It encompasses not only temporal satisfaction, such as happiness, life satisfaction, close relationships, and positive emotions, but also extends to psychological and physical health, meaning, and purpose. Crucially, it includes eternal well-being, aligning the meaning of one’s life with their ultimate purpose in God (Joshanloo, 2017, p. 120).

For instance, drawing meaning from scripture to navigate worldly challenges is intimately connected to a Muslim’s faith and cannot be merely personalized in vague notions of “meaning” (Büyükçınar, 1988, pp. 276–281). In Islam, trials and tribulations are seen as opportunities for getting closer to Allah and the expiation of sins (Ibn al-Jawzi, 2018, p. 728). The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “No fatigue, nor disease, nor sorrow, nor sadness, nor hurt, nor distress befalls a Muslim, even if it were the prick he receives from a thorn, but that God Almighty expiates some of his sins for that” (Bukhari 5641). Numerous Qur’anic verses also address God Almighty’s purpose in adversity, which is essentially to benefit the subject in the Afterlife (Hamdan, 2008). In the Qur’an, it is emphasized that Allah tests the believers by giving them the opportunity to grow closer to Himself and be successful through their good deeds and acts of worship (2:155–57, 32:24, 47:31, 94:5–8).

Nonetheless, contemporary conceptualizations of meaning often favor a secular viewpoint that excludes religion as a contributor to psychological well-being (Joshanloo, 2013). This perspective implies that individuals can create personal meanings independently of religious values or traditions (Schweiker, 2009). However, researchers argue that meaning-making is intricately linked to religious beliefs and values (Park, 2005). Furthermore, secularizing religion or extracting secular notions of “meaning’ ” or transcendence, as demonstrated by Diener (2009), Seligman (2011), Huppert & So (2013), and Kushlev et al. (2017), tends to overlook the significance and centrality of the role of God and one’s relationship with Him in defining psychological well-being (Nosrati et al., 2020; Reber, 2006; Bonab & Koohsar, 2011).

The role religion plays in the happiness of people has newfound interest among scientists and clinical practitioners in recent years due to its immense contribution to psychological well-being (Al-Karam, 2018; Keshavarzi et al., 2021; Koenig, 2018). However, even though contemporary research has shown that happiness is an essential component of well-being, the pursuit of happiness is conceived differently in the Islamic tradition than in the contemporary Eurocentric view. Al-Kindi (c. 801–873 C.E.), the first philosopher in the Islamic world, wrote an epistle on treating emotional dysregulation, and healing from sadness and grief (Adamson & Pormann, 2012). Similarly, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1997) wrote about the role of patience and gratitude at times of trial and adversity, providing strategies to build patience and coming closer to God. Al-Jawziyya (2020) in his famous book, Ranks of the Divine Seekers, also devoted a section to grief, describing the stages and types, its adaptive and maladaptive forms, and adaptive emotional experiences’ role in gaining proximity to God and the expiation of sins. Imam al-Birgivi (2005) also wrote in The Path of Muhammad about the role of contentment, surrendering to the decree of God, and demonstrating gratitude. In his book, he also provided cognitive, emotional, and behavioral strategies for growing out of adversity, and maintaining psychological well-being. Likewise, Imam al-Ghazali (1965), in Revival of the Religions Sciences, Book of Fear and Hope, wrote a thorough essay concerning the therapeutic application of hope to overcome fear and despair.

According to this extensive literature in the Islamic tradition, belief in God and His revelation is a fundamental source for experiencing positive emotions and living a good life (Nasr, 2014). Furthermore, the pursuit of happiness in Islamic tradition is primarily concerned with achieving eternal happiness rather than the more temporary forms of happiness conceptualized in modern theories (Joshanloo, 2017). In accordance with this view, Muslim scholars postulate that true happiness that transcends worldly existence can only be achieved through closeness to the Creator, by getting to know Him, and worshipping Him (Chittick, 1989). It is stated in the Qur’an that people can only feel peaceful, calm, and satisfied with the remembrance of Allah: “… the ones who believe and their hearts are peaceful with the remembrance of Allah. Listen, the hearts find peace only in the remembrance of Allah” (Qur’an 13:28). The Qur’an also states that straying away from Allah leads to having a depressed life: “… whoever turns away from My remembrance - indeed, he will have a depressed life, and We shall raise him up blind on the Day of Judgment” (Qur’an 20:124).

Several empirical studies have also established relationships between different aspects of religiousness and psychological well-being. For example, among Muslims, gratitude towards Allah has been shown to have a positive relationship with psychological well-being and resilience, and a negative relationship with mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety (Aghababaei, Błachnio, & Aminikhoo, 2018; Aqababaii, Farahani, & Tabik, 2012; Hasan et al., 2021). Research also indicates the effectiveness of patience in reducing mental health problems (Uyun & Witruk, 2017), and increasing satisfaction with life and general health among Muslims (Aghababaei & Tabik, 2015). Furthermore, Islamic-based emotional interventions have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing psychological well-being (Al-Seheel & Noor, 2016) and treating mental health disorders (Babamohammadi et al., 2015; Masjedi-Arani et al., 2020).

Certainly, the concept of self is central to most theories of psychological well-being, including the notions of self-actualization (Jahoda, 1958; Ryff, 1989), attitudes of an individual toward his own self (Jahoda, 1958), self-acceptance (Diener et al., 2009; Ryff, 1989), autonomy (Ryff, 1989), and self-esteem (Huppert & So, 2013). Contemporary research on psychological well-being provides evidence for self-actualization, self-acceptance, autonomy, and self-esteem in maintaining and enhancing the optimal human functioning (Ryff et al. 2014). However, there are cross-cultural and religious differences regarding the emphasis given to the self as opposed to others when conceptualizing psychological well-being.

For instance, early and contemporary Western psychologists conceptualized the ability to resist social pressure and make evaluations according to internalized norms and personal standards as essential components of psychological well-being (Jahoda, 1958; Ryff, 1989). This conceptualization represents the ideal notion of self as independent, as opposed to an Islamic notion of self that emphasizes each individual as a part of social unity (Hayatullah, 2014). It is stated in the Holy Qur’an: “the believers are none but brothers unto one another” (Qur’an, 49:10). Islam lays a strong emphasis on community welfare, social responsibility, and contributing to the well-being of others (Birgivi, 2005). On many occasions, Qur’an stresses the importance of showing dedication to the community through collaboration, facilitation of collective social justice (Qur’an 2:83, 2:215, 16:90), and commitment to parents through righteousness, respect, and kindness (Qur’an 17:23–24, 31:14, 46:15). It is stated in the Holy Qur’an: “Worship Allah and associate nothing with Him, and to parents do good, and to relatives, orphans, the needy, the near neighbor, the neighbour farther away, the companion at your side, the traveler, and those whom your right hands possess. Indeed, Allah does not like those who are self-deluding and boastful” (Qur’an 4:36).

There is a large body of research demonstrating the role of a collectively aligned Muslim identity in the well-being of Muslims. Research has shown that collectivistic coping strategies help Muslims promote psychological well-being and prevent mental illness. For example, Guerin, Elmi, and Guerin (2006) examined the relationship between mental health and coping strategies among Somali migrant women in an ethnographic study. Researchers found that participation in community activities helped Somali women better adapt to their new environment, increased their psychological well-being, and prevented the onset of psychological disorders. A recent study that collected data from 245 Muslim caregivers for palliative care patients during the mourning period showed that religious and cultural practices, such as arranging a funeral feast, visiting the graves, and reading the Qur’an together, helped bereaved individuals cope with the absence of their loved one (Ümmühan, Gül, & Behice, 2022).

It is clear from the literature review that all elements of well-being, as presented by contemporary Eurocentric theories, are closely related to religion and indices of religiosity. However, these contemporary models of psychological well-being do not explicitly include the religious domain of psychological well-being or, in the case of the value-based approaches to well-being, they attempt to do so by integrating Eurocentric culture and values. In this way, existing approaches fail to capture the deeper understanding of well-being that is influenced by religious and cultural values in Islam. Therefore, an examination of the Islamic understanding of well-being is necessary to identify and conceptualize a psychological well-being model that is religiously appropriate.

The researcher conducted a qualitative content analysis (Shava et al., 2021) on the concept of psychological well-being in Abu Zayd al-Balkhi’s Sustenance of Body and Soul and Imam al-Birgivi’s The Path of Muhammad.

This study underwent review by Ibn Haldun University Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure compliance with ethical guidelines for research involving human participants. The IRB determined that the study received full approval based on its low risk and minimal invasiveness, affirming that the research design and protocols align with established ethical standards. All data collected were securely stored and analyzed in accordance with ethical standards.

The qualitative content analysis conducted on Abu Zayd al-Balkhi’s Sustenance of Body and Soul, and Imam al-Birgivi’s The Path of Muhammad resulted in a three-step process entailing “knowledge” (theme 1), “intention” (theme 2), and “action” (theme 3) for psychological well-being that one can achieve either by oneself or with the help of an external aid (i.e., a therapist or spiritual guide). This three-step process is described in detail in the following pages.

According to the descriptions provided by Balkhi and Birgivi, this theme can be divided into four overarching sub-themes: knowledge of self-awareness, knowledge of vices, knowledge of virtues, knowledge of the nature of worldly existence, human beings, and common psychological disturbances, and knowledge of Islamic creed and ethics.

Birgivi emphasizes the pivotal role of intention in the journey of self-improvement, asserting, “the superiority of knowledge depends solely on the sincerity of the intention to act upon it” (p. 158). This intention, he argues, “acts as a bridge connecting knowledge with action, guiding individuals in determining what they should do and how they should do it” (p. 100). Therefore, the second step towards preserving and sustaining psychological well-being involves setting pure intentions and actively striving to eliminate vices from one’s life. However, according to both Balkhi and Birgivi, this endeavor is not without its challenges. “Cultivating virtues and resisting corresponding vices demands a dedicated effort, requiring individuals to continually self-evaluate and draw upon their knowledge to navigate the situations they encounter” (Birgivi, p. 110; Balkhi, p. 31; 63).

Accordingly, they underscore the importance of perpetual self-evaluation as a means to recognize one’s shortcomings. This ongoing process involves introspection into one’s intentions, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors, enabling individuals to maintain a constant state of self-examination aimed at combatting and ultimately overcoming vices (Birgivi, p. 96; 110; 143; 154; Balkhi, p. 31; 63). By linking the sincerity of intention to self-evaluation, they provide a comprehensive framework for psychological well-being, where genuine intentions guide the path towards virtuous actions, and vigilant self-evaluation serves as a vital tool for inner development and the pursuit of psychological well-being.

In the Islamic tradition, action holds a paramount significance, as it is the tangible manifestation of one’s intentions and beliefs. It is through action that individuals demonstrate their commitment to self-improvement, spiritual growth, and most importantly, their faith (Birgivi, p. 100). As Birgivi emphasizes: “Faith is surety, security, confirmation of teachings brought by the Messenger of God from God, believing them in your heart and expressing them with your tongue, your behavior, and your actions” (p. 55). “According to most dependable sources, knowledge, sincerity, fear and hope in God, honesty, good character and behavior, and good deeds are part of faith and an indication of the perfection of faith” (p. 56).

In this context, faith encompasses beliefs, behaviors, character, and virtues that contribute to psychological well-being by fostering feelings of security, authenticity, integrity, clarity, equilibrium, and resilience in confronting life’s trials and maintaining inner peace. Consequently, the third essential step toward attaining psychological well-being lies in the consistent and purposeful practice of virtuous deeds, aligning not only with one’s intentions but also enhancing personal growth and benefiting the broader community.

The first implication is the improvement of further models built upon uniquely Islamic constructs to better understand psychological well-being. Researchers are also encouraged to facilitate the development of a valid and reliable scale that is appropriate to the current model since there is no empirically tested model of psychological well-being that is inherently Islamic. After the development of a valid and reliable scale, future researchers can also test the adaptability of this scale to see the extent to which it is applicable to Muslims across different countries. In addition, future researchers may also conduct cross-cultural studies to assess the level of psychological well-being of individuals from different cultures.

The second implication could be developing therapeutic interventions to integrate into mental health practice and creating experimental studies to measure their efficacy. For example, researchers may provide psychoeducation that corresponds to the knowledge construct of the current model, and then examine the scores for the other constructs to measure the extent to which knowledge predicts intentional actions, actions themselves, and the overall psychological well-being of individuals. Researchers and mental health practitioners can use the data drawn from experimental and correlational studies to better understand which constructs have essential contributions to psychological well-being, and how further interventions can be designed to increase psychological well-being. Researchers and mental health practitioners can utilize such interventions in psychoeducational programs, workshop projects, and different types of therapies (e.g., motivational interviewing, cognitive behavioral therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and culturally sensitive therapy) to help enhance the psychological well-being of individuals.

One limitation of the study was that only a limited number of books were subjected to qualitative content analysis in the development of the current model. In this sense, future researchers could benefit from a variety of different sources found in the Islamic scholarly tradition. Another limitation was that no instrumental tool was developed as a result of this study.